Camp design
and layout
Possible
problems/needs
79. The physical circumstances in
which refugees are housed affect their safety. Too often refugee women face
dangers stemming from poor design of camps: for example, communal housing that
provides no privacy for women; location of basic services and facilities such as
latrines at an unsafe distance from where refugee women are housed; poorly lit
camps that allow attacks to take place with relative impunity; construction of
barriers and even the mining of the perimeters of camps even when refugees must
go beyond those borders to obtain firewood or other items.
80. In many refugee situations, strangers
are thrown together in new settings. Often, no efforts are made to restore
traditional communities in deciding to which camps individuals and families will
be assigned or where within a camp a given person will be living. Encampments
may be the size of large cities, offering the first experience of urban life for
refugees. Unaccompanied women and women-headed households may be intermixed with
single men under circumstances that undermine efforts to provide protection.
Traditional mechanisms for providing order within the community may be lost in
the refugee experience.
Possible
programme interventions
81. The following is a summary of
possible programme interventions:
o Conserve to the extent possible the original
community from the country of origin within the new site.
o Consult with the refugees as to the preferred
physical and social organization of the camp. Ensure that women are consulted
during this process, and when possible, have female staff talk with community
workers.
o Ensure that basic services/facilities at the site
are located in such a manner that refugee women do not become vulnerable to
attack when they need to avail themselves of these services/facilities.
o Form security patrols, preferably by trusted
members of the refugee community, to guard the encampment at night, targeting
the protection of refugee women as a first priority.
o Improve lighting where possible, particularly on
the paths used by women at night to use services/facilities.
o Give special priority to assessing the needs for
protection of unaccompanied refugee women, women-headed households, aged and
disabled women, consulting with them to determine the best housing
arrangements.
o Identify and promote alternatives to camps where
possible, particularly alternatives to closed camps and detention centres.
Prolonged stays in camps can lead to a breakdown in law and order.
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Access to food
and other distributed items
Possible
problems/needs
82. Equal access to food and other
distributed items is a key issue for refugee women. The principle cause of
mortality in refugee camps is malnutrition. Lack of food kills on its own and is
a major contributor to death from a number of diseases. Malnourished people are
more susceptible to disease and are more difficult to cure of illnesses.
Malnourished women who are pregnant or lactating are unable to provide
sufficient nutrients to their children to enable them to survive. Further,
people denied such basic items as shelter, clothing and cooking utensils are at
higher risk of disease.
83. Decisions about food and other item
distribution are generally made by international organizations and host
countries in consultation with the male leaders of the camps. Yet, these male
leaders may have little understanding of the needs and circumstances of those
who cook the food, feed or clothe their families: the women. As a result, the
distribution procedures and contents of the food basket may be inappropriate.
Food that is inconsistent with the dietary traditions of the refugees may be
provided. Or, food may be offered that requires preparation that cannot be
readily accomplished in the camp setting. These problems are further compounded
by cultural practices among some refugee populations that require that men be
fed first. Where supplies are limited, women and children may not receive
adequate food and will be the first to suffer.
84. The predominance of male-dominated
food distribution is at clear odds with traditional patterns in which women play
a lead role in food production. The World Bank reports that 70 percent of the
food grown in developing countries is produced by women. Although the pattern
differs somewhat by region, women in developing countries are also typically
involved in animal husbandry, activities aimed at storing food, selling and
exchanging produce, and the preparation and cooking of food. In Africa, women
are often the sole cultivators whereas in Asia, joint cultivation by spouses is
more typical. In Latin America, women tend to take over cultivation when their
husbands seek employment in the cities to supplement the agricultural work.
85. In some circumstances, food
distributed through male networks has been diverted to resistance forces or for
sale on the black market, with women and children suffering as a result. In
other situations, food has been used as a weapon by blocking distribution to
civilian populations. In still other cases, male distributors of food and other
items have required sexual favours in exchange for the assistance goods.
Possible
programme interventions
86. The following is a summary of
possible programme interventions:
o Consult with refugee women regarding all decisions
about food and other distribution.
o Designate refugee women as the initial point of
contact for emergency and longer-term food distribution. Distribution of food
directly to women can reduce diversion to the military and creates a greater
likelihood that food will reach the refugee population. It also helps ensure
that women are not forced to provide sexual favours in order to obtain food.
o Monitor the nutritional status of women and
children to identify problems in food distribution. Where nutritional
deficiencies or declining nutritional status is detected, immediate steps should
be taken to review the food distribution policies and their implementation to
determine if they are acting in a non-discriminatory manner that provides
adequate access for all refugees.
o Provide opportunities and training, if necessary,
so that refugee women can produce, trade or otherwise acquire food for
themselves and their families.
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Water and
firewood
Possible
problems/needs
87. In addition to malnutrition,
poor sanitation and contaminated water supplies contribute to high death rates
in many refugee situations. Improved techniques for obtaining clean water is an
essential need. Women in refugee camps, like many other women in developing
countries, spend a great deal of time in water collection. Containers that are
too heavy or pumps that are inconveniently located can intensify this effort.
Similarly, collection of fuel for cooking and heating is a task for which women
are generally responsible. In a refugee context, efforts to find water or
firewood can be not only time-consuming (if located at some distance from the
camps) but dangerous (if located in mine-infested areas or the site of
conflict).
Possible
programme interventions
88. The following is a summary of
possible programme interventions:
o Consult with refugee women concerning the type and
location of water points and containers for carrying water.
o Consult with refugee women concerning the location
and means of collection of fuel for cooking and heating.
o Monitor the water and fuel-collection points to
ensure that they are safe and accessible.
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Access to
appropriate health care
Possible
problems/needs
89. The access of refugee women to
health care services is important both to their own health and to the welfare of
the broader community. Women are also the prime providers of health care to
other family members. Thus, the health of other members of the family will be
directly related to a mother's knowledge or interest in promoting a healthy
environment and taking preventive actions against disease.
90. Health services further serve an
important protection function in identifying protection problems arising within
a camp or other place of settlement. Health staff become aware of protection
problems when women who have been sexually abused or otherwise harmed seek
medical care. Community health workers typically visit homes within the refugee
community and may hear of specific problems during the course of their work.
However, few health workers receive training about what to do when they uncover
these problems.
91. Inappropriate or inaccessible health
services can be obstacles to good health among refugee women and their families.
The absence of female health practitioners has been one of the principal
barriers to health care, particularly where cultural values prevent a woman from
being seen by a man who is not a member of her immediate family.
92. Failure to utilize the existing
networks of female health practitioners in refugee communities has caused a
variety of problems. For example, a number of programmes have trained refugee
men to serve as medics but then find that the trained personnel leave the camps.
Some seek resettlement abroad; others are conscripted to serve as medics in the
military forces.
93. By contrast, women health workers
tend to be not only more appropriate practitioners but also more stable members
of the community. Recruitment of refugee women to become health workers is thus
essential to the operation of health services. Agencies that place high value on
English skills and literacy in their refugee workers may need to change their
criteria for recruitment of health workers if insufficient numbers of refugee
women meet them. They may also need to redesign their training programmes to
include an emphasis on the development of literacy skills. Further, they may
need to develop mechanisms for convincing male leaders that women should become
health workers, particularly where there are cultural constraints on women
taking employment outside of the home. Recruitment of female expatriate and
host-country staff will also need to be intensified, particularly in those posts
involving supervision of refugee women staff and clinical services for women.
94. A further problem relates to the
types of services offered. Existing health services too often overlook
female-specific needs. For example, gynaecological services are frequently
inadequate as are child spacing services. Basic needs, such as adequate cloth
and washing facilities for menstruating women, are overlooked. Serious problems,
such as infections and cervical cancer, and harmful practices such as female
circumcision go all but undetected. Counselling regarding sexually-transmitted
diseases is generally inadequate for both women and men. Few, if any, programmes
focus on the needs of adolescent girls even though early marriages and
pregnancies are a reported cause of poor health.
95. Access to family-planning information
and devices is limited in most refugee camps even where it is available to women
and men in the host country. In some cases, the refugees are reluctant to use
birth control because of cultural constraints or unfamiliarity. In a number of
camps, non-governmental agencies provide health services, including those
relating to maternal and child health and health education, but they are unable,
because of their own religious or cultural constraints, to include family
planning in their programmes. Refugee women may not be given sufficient
information to provide informed consent to the use of birth control.
96. Inappropriate design of health
programmes is another impediment to their effective utilization by refugee
women. Although an emphasis on preventive programming is supposed to dominate
health care systems, many programmes are still primarily focused on curative
services.
97. In many situations, men are the
primary users of in-patient facilities. Some hospital beds are used almost
exclusively by soldiers who have returned to their families in refugee camps
because they have been wounded or suffer from such diseases as malaria. Use of
health care services for this purpose is often at the expense of preventive
efforts that would improve the health status of refugee women.
98. In addition to physical health
problems, some refugee women suffer from mental health problems. Becoming a
refugee involves many dislocations and abrupt changes in life. At a minimum,
refugee women face emotional problems and difficulties in adjustment resulting
from loss of family and community support.
99. More
serious mental health problems are not uncommon, arising from torture and sexual
abuse prior to or after flight. Depression and post-traumatic stress disorder
often follow such experiences. Common symptoms experienced by survivors of
traumatic events include anxiety, intrusive thoughts, disassociation or psychic
numbing, hyper-alertness, and sleeping and eating disorders. The most serious
mental health problems of refugees may manifest themselves in severe depressive
behaviour, self-destructive behaviour, violent or disruptive behaviour, alcohol
or drug abuse, and a high degree of psychosomatic illness.
100. Rape counselling programmes, or their cultural
equivalents, are few in number although many refugee women have been raped.
Other mental health services are also lacking in most refugee camps. Nor are
counselling programmes available for women who have undergone the trauma of
dislocation.
101. There are also logistical problems that impede
access to health care for refugee women. Inconvenient clinic hours may prevent
women from coming for health services or bringing their children. Other
time-consuming responsibilities limit women's flexibility. Also, clinics may be
distant from home. Concerns about security also impede access. In some camps,
women are reluctant to go to clinics because they must cross insecure areas to
get there.
Possible
programme interventions
102. The following is a summary of possible
programme interventions:
o Consult with refugee women to design health
programmes that are appropriate for them and that guarantee that women have
equal access to their services.
o Enter into contracts and agreements with
institutions operating health programmes that require that the gender
composition of their health staff reflect the gender composition of the refugee
population.
o Develop programmes for the recruitment and training
of refugee women as health workers.
o Provide training to health staff, including refugee
workers, to help them identify protection problems and know to whom to report
them.
o Give high priority to the provision of primary
health care, including maternal and child health services, gynaecological
services, birthing care, counselling regarding sexually transmitted diseases,
family planning programmes, and health education regarding public health and
harmful practices such as female circumcision. Special attention should be paid
to services needed by adolescent girls.
o Institute counselling and mental health services
for refugee women, particularly for victims of torture, rape and other physical
and sexual abuse.
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Education and skills training
Possible
problems/needs
103. The right to education is universal. The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights states explicitly, "Everyone has the right
to education. Education should be free, at least in the elementary and
fundamental stage." The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
provides that: "Contracting States shall accord to refugees the same treatment
as is accorded to nationals with respect to elementary education." The UNHCR
Executive Committee has reaffirmed the fundamental right of refugee children to
education and, in its thirty-eighth session, called upon all States,
individually and collectively, to intensify their efforts to ensure that refugee
children benefit from primary education. Yet, the right to education continues
to be abridged.
104. Millions of refugee children are without
education, even at the elementary level. In 1987, fewer than 500,000 of an
estimated 5 million children receiving assistance from UNHCR were enrolled in
schools. The educational coverage is poor by comparison with either the
surrounding host-country population or the country of origin. The situation for
girls is particularly bad, with reports in several countries showing a much
lower utilization by refugee girls of educational programmes at all levels
(primary through university) than is true of refugee boys.
105. Even where refugee children have access to
schools, the classes may be seriously overcrowded. Teacher shortages are a
further problem. Teachers often lack adequate training, and the numbers of
trained national personnel are inadequate for even national needs. Female
teachers are often under-represented in refugee schools, sometimes because few
women had access to education in the country of origin.
106. Opportunities for secondary and university
education for refugees are limited in almost all locations. In many countries,
access to secondary education is affected by the host country's policies about
the admission of refugees. UNHCR operates scholarship programmes that allow a
small number of refugees to obtain higher education. A report in 1984 of the
secondary and tertiary educational scholarship programme at UNHCR showed that
scholarships generally went to single, male students. Most educational
scholarships do not provide support for dependents, making it difficult for
women with children to compete for them.
107. Problems of access for refugee women can also be
found in skills-training programmes. Refugee situations often call for new
skills and occupations for women. Many of the skills which women bring with them
are not immediately or directly relevant to their experiences in refugee camps
or settlements. Although many of their skills are transferable, refugee women
often need training to undertake new roles in support of themselves and their
families.
108. Refugee women face many of the same impediments
to education and skills-training as do children - inadequate resources, teachers
and classes. In addition, women face other barriers. Cultural constraints
sometimes prevent women from accepting work or undertaking training that takes
them out of the household. The culture may also set restrictions on the type of
work that is considered to be appropriate for women. Practical problems also
constrain enrolment, including need for day care and lack of time and energy
after household work and/or jobs as a wage earner. Also, many skills-training
programmes assume some level of prior education, most notably in terms of
literacy. Refugee women may not qualify for such programmes, having been
discriminated against in their country of origin in obtaining elementary
education.
109. Other constraints relate to the design and
contents of training programmes. In some cases, programmes have been too far
removed from the everyday-life activities of the refugee women and have
therefore appeared to be irrelevant to their needs. Some vocational training
programmes have focused on skills that are not marketable in the refugee
context.
Possible
programme interventions
110. The following is a summary of possible
programme interventions:
o Ensure that refugee girls have equal opportunities
as boys to obtain primary education offered by UNHCR. Where refugees are
schooled by national authorities, ensure that refugee girls have access on the
same basis as boys, within the parameters set by national educational policies.
Where needed, institute programmes to help refugee girls overcome the barriers
that impede their utilization of the educational programmes.
o Assess and make changes, as needed, in high school
and university scholarship programmes, adult educational programmes and skills
training programmes to ensure that refugee women have equal access to them.
Institute projects to help women overcome the barriers, such as need for child
care, that impede their utilization of the educational and training programmes.
o Consult with refugee women in the development and
implementation of these programmes.
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Economic
activities
Possible
problems/needs
111. A basic need of many refugee women,
particularly heads of households, is sufficient income to support their
families. The extent to which refugee women are economic resources has often
been under-estimated. While household strategies for economic survival differ
greatly, in all situations women play an important economic role. Barriers to
assuming these economic roles lead to an inability of refugee women to support
themselves and their families, thereby contributing to their potential
exploitation.
112. Household strategies for economic survival vary
depending on family composition, existing work opportunities, refugee and
host-country cultural constraints, and other factors. Refugee women in
developing countries (like their host national counterparts) are an integral
part of the family's economic activities whether those entail assisting in food
production, marketing goods or providing services such as cooking and laundry
for other family members who engage in wage-labour activities.
113. Theoretically there are a number of ways that
refugees can supplement their household income. They include: employment in the
local economy or with assistance agencies; agricultural activities; bartering;
establishment of trades or small businesses; and participation in
skills-training programmes and formal income-generation projects.
114. Women in developing countries most typically
find employment in the informal sector of the economy. Refugee women in
developing countries do the same. In general, refugee women who work in the
local economy are within the service sector. For example, it is not uncommon to
find a refugee woman supporting her family through her earnings as a domestic.
These jobs are often a cornerstone in the household survival strategy for an
extended family.
115. Assistance agencies are an important source of
employment for refugees in developing countries. Typically, these positions go
to younger men who have the language skills to communicate with and relate to
the expatriate staff in charge. These positions often offer a higher level of
financial compensation than is usually available to refugees in the local
market; relatively interesting, non-manual labour work (though the employees
often feel they are over-qualified for the position); more security; higher
status; and other benefits such as an increased chance for resettlement to a
third country.
116. The primary area of employment with assistance
agencies for refugee women is in the health sector. In a number of cultures, it
is more appropriate for women to seek medical advice from and be examined by
other women. The employed women work in supplementary feeding programmes; as
traditional birth attendants; in mother/child health programmes; as home
visitors, particularly in public health education and outreach; as translators;
etc. Following health programmes, the second largest sector for employment is
income-generation projects, particularly those aimed specifically at women.
Refugee women, however, tend to be under-represented even in these fields.
117. UNHCR and NGOs have implemented many programmes
to help women's income-generating activities. A number of problems have affected
the success of these attempts. Generally, they targeted marginal economic
activities such as handicrafts for which there is often not a sustainable
market. Women have generally not been involved in some of the larger projects
that focus on reforestation, infrastructure development, or agricultural
activities. Interestingly, in many of the cultures from which the refugee women
come, women are traditionally involved in these activities, raising questions
about whether Western biases about women's traditional role may be constraining
choices.
118. Few of the women's projects have led to
long-term economic self-sufficiency for the women involved. The programmes
suffer from such problems as: lack of clarity regarding the goals and
objectives; lack of proper planning (skills assessment, market research,
identification of appropriate participants, etc.); excessive administrative
costs and/or inadequate funding; unrealistic time-lines; and inadequate
consultation with the refugee community. These programmes do demonstrate,
however, that refugee women are interested in increasing their incomes and will
participate in economic activities outside the home if given the chance.
119. Where refugee women have no opportunities for
income generation, they are vulnerable to sexual exploitation and abuse. Refugee
women involved in prostitution often note that they have no other means of
supporting themselves and/or their families. In this case, deficiencies in the
assistance and social service systems lead to major protection problems for the
refugee women.
Possible
programme interventions
120. The following is a summary of possible
programme interventions:
o Be aware of the direct relationship between access
to adequate income and protection of refugee women.
o Ensure equal access of refugee women to programmes
designed to increase economic self-sufficiency. Beware of cultural biases in
your own thinking that may serve as barriers to helping refugee women become
fully self-supporting.
o Consult with refugee women about the design and
implementation of these programmes.
o Integrate refugee women into all refugee aid and
development plans. Projects that target refugee women should be implemented,
however, where there are cultural or other barriers to overcome that do not
equally affect men.
o Monitor projects carefully to ensure that they
provide sufficient household income and do not focus on marginal economic
activities.
Back to Contents
V FOLLOW-UP AND REPORTING OF PROTECTION
PROBLEMS
<Introduction
121. Even if the various recommendations
contained in these Guidelines are implemented, it is still likely that
protection problems for refugee women and girls will arise. Two categories of
problems may be foreseen. The first are cases in which individual refugee women
are subject to violations of their safety or rights. The second are cases in
which a pattern and practice of abuse or discrimination against refugee women is
uncovered. Both of these situations require action to be taken to redress the
problem. Also, reports to the country representative/chargé de mission and UNHCR
Headquarters should be made regarding the exact nature of the identified
problems.
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Planning a
response
122. The more specific and practical the
strategy for preventing and overcoming protection problems the better. A plan
for improving protection will be needed which spells out whether the problem
being addressed is a unique occurrence (that is, affecting an individual woman)
or is likely to be part of a pattern of events that does or will affect other
refugee women as well. Planning will vary substantially depending on the answer
to this question in terms of:
o the specific objectives of the plan;
o the target groups, locations and the estimated
number of beneficiaries of the protection activities;
o the specific nature of the proposed strategy;
o mechanisms and responsibilities for
implementation;
o the technical expertise and other personnel
required to carry out the activities;
o responsibilities and arrangements for monitoring
implementation and evaluating outcomes;
o the specific time schedule of operations;
o the cost of implementing the strategy;
o the need to make formal representations to the host
country government; and
o the need to involve UNHCR Headquarters in the plan
of action.
123. It is important to keep in mind that
different protection cases may require substantially different responses
depending on the specific circumstances. These Guidelines are meant to suggest
courses of action but they are not substitutes for assessing and implementing
the specific activities called for in a particular case.
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Individual
cases
124. When specific protection cases such as
rapes of individual women are identified, the aim of UNHCR activities should be
to ensure that the individual obtains protection in the future, that adequate
actions are taken to prevent similar cases from occurring, that her medical and
other needs resulting from the protection problem are met, and that actions be
taken to institute legal proceedings if sufficient evidence can be obtained. The
following activities should be considered:
o Provide an environment within which refugee women
can report protection problems in private and with confidence that there will be
no retribution for having done so.
o Obtain as much information as possible about the
circumstances of the case: the victim, the person or persons accused of causing
the protection problem, when it occurred, where it occurred, who, if anyone,
witnessed the occurrence, etc. Trained staff should conduct the interviews,
using female staff to the extent possible in interviewing the victim and any
female witnesses. Keep in mind that you are not trying to build a court case
against the person accused of causing the problem but are trying to clarify the
circumstances sufficiently to determine what, if any, further actions should be
taken.
o Determine if the victim requires medical help
and/or counselling and make the necessary referrals for service.
o Ensure the confidentiality of the information being
provided.
o Determine if the victim is currently living in a
secure, safe situation. If she is still subject to abuse, make plans to relocate
her. If relocation out of the camp or even the country of asylum is necessary,
consider the woman's eligibility for possible resettlement through a
"women-at-risk" programme.
o If the person(s) accused of causing the protection
problem is/are person(s) working inside the camp, bring the issue to the
attention of the agency for which the person works to discuss possible avenues
to prevent further occurrences.
o If the person(s) accused of causing the protection
problem is/are host country nationals (for example, military personnel or local
residents), inform the UNHCR country representative/chargé de mission of the
accusation so that he or she can bring the issue to the attention of the
host-country government to discuss possible avenues to ensure protection for the
specific victim and to prevent further occurrences.
o If sufficient evidence can be obtained to institute
legal proceedings against the accused person, inform the host country of this
evidence and request that proceedings be instituted.
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Pattern of
protection problems
125. Where there appears to be a recurrent
pattern of violations of the security or legal rights of refugee women, UNHCR
actions should focus not only on the issues described above for individual cases
but should also seek to identify and ameliorate systemic reasons for the
continuing protection problems. This will involve:
o undertaking a systematic assessment of policies and
practices implemented in the camp to determine if these policies are
contributing to the protection problems and instituting changes as needed to
prevent further abuses;
o establishing training programmes for responsible
officials of UNHCR, NGOs, the host-country government and the refugee community
to make them more aware of the rights of refugee women and their
responsibilities to provide protection to refugee women;
o establishing education programmes for refugee women
to apprise them of their rights and the recourse open to them if their rights
are violated;
o making representations to those responsible for
setting policies and implementing programmes, including strong requests to host
governments to take actions to further the protection of refugee women; and
o consulting with NGOs to inform them of the
identified problems and seek their cooperation and assistance in finding
solutions.
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Reporting
126. Individual protection cases involving
refugee women should be reported to UNHCR Headquarters through the regular
protection reporting channels. Their occurrence should be included in the annual
protection report under the applicable sections. Note that the protection report
does not call for a specific section on refugee women. Rather, issues related to
refugee women should be included throughout.
127. Advice should be sought from Headquarters on
individual legal and physical protection cases, when the following conditions
apply:
o cases in which the field office does not have the
factual information necessary to address the problem. For example, cases where
the field office is unable to assess the well-foundedness of a woman's claim to
refugee status because it lacks information relating to the situation in the
country of origin;
o cases in which the field office needs advice
regarding the proper interpretation of particular elements of the refugee
definition (in cases of status determination) or national laws and policies (for
example, the burden of proof required or rights of the victim in rape
cases);
o cases which have not been dealt with in the past by
the field office concerned and which may constitute precedents for handling
future cases of a similar nature; and
o cases requiring intervention by Headquarters in
order to ensure the safety of the refugee woman, for example, by requesting
emergency resettlement.
128. When requesting assistance from
Headquarters on individual cases, provide the following information:
o basic biodata, including name of individual or
alias, if applicable, date and place of birth, nationality, ethnic origin,
religion and political or similar affiliation, and the current status of the
woman in the country of asylum;
o summary of the problem with all relevant facts,
including all elements and facts put forward by the refugee woman or witnesses
to substantiate the claim;
o credibility assessment, particularly in cases which
cannot be independently substantiated;
o summary of actions taken to date in as concrete a
form as possible; and
o options already under consideration by the field
office.
129. Recurrent protection problems should be
reported to Headquarters as soon as they are identified. These reports
should:
o provide specific information as to the nature of
the problems;
o detail what advice and assistance is needed from
Headquarters, including any technical assistance needed in addressing protection
problems stemming from camp layout and design and/or assistance policies;
and
o provide detailed information about plans being
formulated to overcome the identified problems, including any financial
implications of taking these actions.
Copyright 2001 UNHCR.
All Rights Reserved.
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